4. Nouns

TBD: Introduction

4.1 Noun roots

TBD: Introduction

4.1.1 Root suppletion in nominal possession

• 'father':
  • 1 papa
  • 2 ë-më / o-mo / ë-mo (?)
  • 3 i-mu
  • NP y-ïmï
• often suppletive in Cariban languages: ❕
  • 'arrow'
  • 'house'
  • 'poop'
  • 'mother'
  • 'hammock string'

4.2 Pronouns

The personal pronouns of Yawarana are shown in Table 4.1. The system shows the usual Cariban inclusive/exclusive (1+2 and 1+3) distinction, though the 1+2 pronoun ejnë does not have the /k/ found elsewhere in the family. There are plural forms of the second and third person pronouns, which are composed of the respective singular form and the plural marker kontomo for second, -santomo for third person. An alternative strategy for pluralizing tëwï is by using jne. This results in tëwï=jne, which usually simply becomes ta=jne. Singular speech act participant pronouns can procliticize to nouns (see 4.4), verbs (see 13) and postpositions (see 7.4).

The third person demonstrative pronouns or articles are shown in Table 4.2. ❔ None of them have shortened and phonologically bound counterparts. ❔

• nominal interrogative pronouns: ❔
  • anïkï (pl with -santomo)
  • ati (no pl)

4.3 Nominal inflection

Nouns in Yawarana may bear suffixes marking their possession status (4.3.1), number (4.3.2), and nominal past tense (4.3.3). Possessed nouns can carry second and third person prefixes, as well as the linker y- (4.3.4). ❕

4.3.1 Suffixes for possessed and non-possessed nouns

In the possession construction in Yawarana, the possessor noun occurs immediately preceding the possessed noun, which is the head of the possession phrase. ❕ Alternatively, the possessor can appear as a prefix on the possessed noun. The possessor noun is never marked (for instance, with genitive case), but the possessed noun (the head) is often marked for being possessed by a suffix; an unambiguous label for this counterpart of the genitive is pertensive (Dixon 2010). The choice of suffix is lexically conditioned; while most nouns take -ri, some take -ti. Unpossessed nouns generally are unmarked, but some 15 nouns ❕ bear the suffix -të when they appear without a possessor.

Examples illustrate the possible patterns of markedness for nouns when possessed and unpossessed. The vast majority of nouns in our corpus are unmarked when unpossessed, but when possessed the suffix -ri occurs . A handful of nouns is marked with -ri/-ti when possessed and with -të when not possessed . Another handful is unmarked when possessed and marked with -të when not possessed . The fourth logical category, where neither possession or non-possession is marked, contains very few members (only one attested so far). For these nouns, the difference is marked only by the presence or absence of a possessive prefix or free-form possessor . ❕

1. Nouns that take a suffix only when possessed:
   

   akajra-ri	‘X’s bow’	akajra	‘bow’
   y-amaka-ri	‘X’s yucca’	amaka	‘yucca’
   y-ántë-ri	‘X’s fishhook’	antë	‘fishhook’
   y-ateri-ri	‘X’s garden/field’	ateri	‘garden/field’
   ënu-ru	‘X’s eye’	ënu	‘eye’
   y-ëpi-ri	‘X’s medicine’	ëpi	‘medicine’

1. Nouns that take one suffix when possessed and another when unpossessed:
   

   yë-ri	‘X’s tooth’	yë-të	‘tooth’
   pata-ri	‘X’s place’	pata-të	‘(part of name) San Juan de Manapiare’
   y-ese-ti	‘X’s name’	ese-të	‘name’
   y-ase-tï	‘X’s cord’	ase-të	‘cord’

1. Nouns that take a suffix only when unpossessed:
   

   yëjpë	‘X’s bone’	yëjpë-të	‘bone’
   petï	‘X’s thigh’	petï-të / pej-të	‘thigh’
   y-aponi	‘X’s stool’	apon-të	‘stool’

1. Nouns that never take a suffix, whether possessed or unpossessed:
   

   i-jmëy	‘his egg’	ëjmëy	‘egg’

4.3.2 Nominal number

The suffix -tomo (-tom, -ton) occurs on both possessed and unpossessed nouns .

1. 1. wurijyantomo rë wejsapë ijtë

      wurijyantomo wurijyan -tomo woman-pl

      rë rë emp

      wejsapë wej -sapë cop-pst

      ijtë ijtë there

      ‘There were only women there.’ ()
   2. tajne nankase takerejtomo ya

      ta =jne ta =jne 3pro=pl

      nankase nanka -se find-pst

      takerejtomo t- akere -j -tomo 3-relative-pert-pl

      ya ya erg

      ‘His relatives found him.’ ()

4.3.3 Nominal tense

TBD: Describe -jpë.

4.3.4 Inflectional prefixes

There are three inflectional prefixal morphemes on nouns (Table 4.3); only two of them are possessive prefixes, the third being the linker. Prefix allomorphy is mainly conditioned by the initial segment of the noun root.

Second person a(y)- only occurs on a small number of nouns, all of them kinship terms (Table 4.4). With other nouns (and for all first and first person inclusive possessors), a pronominal form is used (see 4.4). None of the stems in Table 4.4 is attested with a pronominal second person possessor.

The third person prefix has the allomorphs i- and t-:

1. mmm, imukuru ma

   mmm mmm yes

   imukuru i- muku -ru 3-child-pert

   ma ma rst

   ‘Yes, his son.’ ()

1. tapëri

   tapëri t- apë -ri 3-arm_wing-pert

   ‘Her arm?’ ()

The linking prefix y- only occurs on V-initial nouns. It marks them as being preceded by their possessor . C-initial (and i-initial) nouns do not show a prefix in this context . This pattern is shared by postpositions (see 7).

1. ati ke ejnë yoti yamanë wejsapë tëwï

   ati ati what

   ke ke ins

   ejnë ejnë 1+2pro

   yoti y- oti -∅ lk-meat-pert

   yamanë yamanë -∅ make-ipfv

   wejsapë wej -sapë cop-pst

   tëwï tëwï 3pro

   ‘With that we used to prepare the meat.’ ()

1. 1. mëinta yaka

      më =inta më =inta -∅ 2=mouth-pert

      yaka yaka all

      ‘into your mouth’ ()
   2. muku pana yënënijpë ti

      muku muku child

      pana pana -∅ ear-pert

      yënënijpë yënë -ni -jpë eat(meat)-agtnmlz-pst

      ti ti hsy

      ‘The one who ate a child's ear, so they say.’ ()

4.4 The noun phrase

A constituent we call the noun phrase is identifiable in the genitive construction in which one noun (or pronoun) possesses another noun. For instance, pana in is possessed by muku. The possessor obligatorily precedes the possessum, the two parts of the constituent only being interruptible by certain particles . Possessor SAP pronouns can occur as proclitics . On V-initial nouns, the linker y- appears in the genitive construction.

1. muku pana yënënijpë ti

   muku muku child

   pana pana -∅ ear-pert

   yënënijpë yënë -ni -jpë eat(meat)-agtnmlz-pst

   ti ti hsy

   ‘The one who ate a child's ear, so they say.’ ()

1. takonojpë rë yapijtontomo ya, najpïtom pan yakono wïrë inijpë chipëkën takï wïrë taro

   takonojpë takono -jpë other-pst

   rë rë emp

   yapijtontomo yapijton -tomo old-pl

   ya   ?

   najpïtom najpï -tom grandfather-pl

   pan pan fmr

   yakono y- akono -∅ lk-younger_sister_of_woman-pert

   wïrë wïrë 1pro

   inijpë ini -jpë see-pst

   chipëkën chipëkën because

   takï takï cnfrm

   wïrë wïrë 1pro

   taro taro -∅ say-ipfv

   ‘The last old ones, the younger brother of my grandparents, because I saw them, I say so.’ ()

1. 1. ¡këë! uyejwetunu, ¡këë! wïrë waijtëri, ¡këë! uyapëri, wïrë poreri, wïrë chikimuru

      këë këë ugh

      u =yejwetunu u =y- ejwetunu -∅ 1=lk-sick-pert

      këë këë ugh

      wïrë wïrë 1pro

      waijtëri waijtë -ri head-pert

      këë këë ugh

      u =yapëri u =y- apë -ri 1=lk-arm_wing-pert

      wïrë wïrë 1pro

      poreri pore -ri leg-pert

      wïrë wïrë 1pro

      chikimuru chikimu -ru knee-pert

      ‘Ugh! I'm sick, ugh, my head, ugh, my arm, my leg, my knee.’ ()
   2. mëwaijtë yaka wëjkase

      më =waijtë më =waijtë -∅ 2=head-pert

      yaka yaka all

      wëjkase wëjka -se fall-pst

      ‘It went into your head.’ ()

1. uyïwïj yawë usenejkari sukuri jwama

   u =yïwïj u =y- ïwïj -∅ 1=lk-house-pert

   yawë yawë loc

   u =senejkari u =-ri 1=stay-ipfv

   sukuri sukuri silently

   jwama   ***

   ‘I silently stay in my house.’ (Conversación sobre la risa entre GrMe y ElPe : 28)

1. tïwïj yaka waraijtokomo manikijpë

   tïwïj t- ïwïj -∅ 3-house-pert

   yaka yaka all

   waraijtokomo waraijtokomo man

   manikijpë   ***

   ‘The man went to his house.’ (Cuento de las ratas por AnFo : 46)

1. marë wïrë sëmpinukuja rë wejtane mokontomo unono, wïrë nono yenekapëkë pako

   marë marë still

   wïrë wïrë 1pro

   sëmpinukuja sëmpinuku -ja close_eyes-neg

   rë rë emp

   wejtane wej -tane cop-cncs

   mokontomo mokontomo 2pl.pro

   u =nono u =nono -∅ 1=earth-pert

   wïrë wïrë 1pro

   nono nono -∅ earth-pert

   yenekapëkë yeneka -pëkë take_away-prog.tr

   pako   ***

   ‘Though I haven't closed my eyes yet, you are already taking my land from me.’ ()

1. yapijtompe wïrë wejtane, ¡kë! wïyapë moroni

   yapijtom =pe yapijtom =pe old=ess

   wïrë wïrë 1pro

   wejtane wej -tane cop-cncs

   kë kë ugh

   wï =yapë wï =y- apë -∅ 1=lk-arm_wing-pert

   moroni moroni pain

   ‘Although I am old, ugh, my arms hurt.’ ()

1. ë'ë, mëyakereti

   ëʼë ëʼë yes

   më =yakereti më =y- akere -ti 2=lk-relative-pert

   ‘Yes, your family.’ ()

1. kwase neke wejsapë tëwï ma anajmori ya yakarama wejsapë

   kwase kwase how

   neke neke cntr

   wejsapë wej -sapë cop-pst

   tëwï tëwï 3pro

   ma ma rst

   anajmori a- najmo -ri 2-grandmother-pert

   ya ya erg

   yakarama -∅ tell-ipfv

   wejsapë wej -sapë cop-pst

   ‘what it was like, that's all your grandmother said.’ ()

1. pïrarë ti iwenaru wejsapë

   pïrarë pïrarë neg.exist

   ti ti hsy

   iwenaru i- wena -ru 3-vomit-pert

   wejsapë wej -sapë cop-pst

   ‘their vomit was not there.’ (Cuento de las ratas por AnFo : 19)

1. wïrë yapëri moronta chi taji

   wïrë wïrë 1pro

   yapëri y- apë -ri lk-arm_wing-pert

   moronta -∅ hurt-ipfv

   chi chi -∅ cop-ipfv

   taji taji foc

   ‘My arms hurt.’ ()

1. ¡këë! uyejwetunu, ¡këë! wïrë waijtëri, ¡këë! uyapëri, wïrë poreri, wïrë chikimuru

   këë këë ugh

   u =yejwetunu u =y- ejwetunu -∅ 1=lk-sick-pert

   këë këë ugh

   wïrë wïrë 1pro

   waijtëri waijtë -ri head-pert

   këë këë ugh

   u =yapëri u =y- apë -ri 1=lk-arm_wing-pert

   wïrë wïrë 1pro

   poreri pore -ri leg-pert

   wïrë wïrë 1pro

   chikimuru chikimu -ru knee-pert

   ‘Ugh! I'm sick, ugh, my head, ugh, my arm, my leg, my knee.’ ()

1. asakërërë mëyawajkë, asakë mëyumukunu

   asakërë =rë asakërë =rë two=emp

   më =yawajkë më =yawaj -kë 2=grate-imp

   asakë asakë two

   më =yumukunu më =y- umukunu -∅ 2=lk-hand-pert

   ‘Scrape with both, two hands.’ ()

1. aaa, mëyakerej sëmase, ¡aj! inche utërijra

   aaa aaa ah

   më =yakerej më =y- akere -j 2=lk-relative-pert

   sëmase sëma -se die-pst

   aj aj ah

   inche in -che see-sup

   u =tëri =jra u =të -ri =jra 1=go-ipfv=neg

   ‘Ah, your family is dead, ah, I will not go see.’ ()

The linker also occurs with (pro-)nominal possessors:

1. toto yoti tajtoj mare

   toto toto non_Indian

   yoti y- oti -∅ lk-meat-pert

   tajtoj taj -toj say-circ.nmlz

   mare mare rel.inan

   ‘What they call the food of the criollos.’ ()

4.5 Nominal Derivational Morphology

• V → N
  • -ri ❕
  • -jpë
    • also ‘pst.abs.nmlz)’ ❕
  • -në or ‘generic action nominalizer’ ❕
    • wënkej-në from transitive wënkepï 'forget'
  • -ni ❕
  • n-V-ri only with yeme
  • -sapë (contrast with -jpë)
  • -topo
  • ‑pïnï ❕
• Adv → N
  • -mï
  • -ano
• Postp → N
  • -ano
• N → N
  • discuss pïjkë and sere-kë 'manioc-DIM' , reference sections
  • -imë: e.g., wara 'woman' waraimë 'married woman' (from dictionary)

4.5.1 The action nominalizer -ri

TBD

4.5.2 The past nominalizer -jpë

TBD

4.5.3 The absolutive nominalizer -sapë

TBD